miércoles, 30 de septiembre de 2015

Panama: economic growth, connectivity and environmental challenges

Francisco Rivas Ríos.

The international financial crisis has spread two concepts: "financial economy" and "real economy." The financial economy would be one based on the financial system, commercial paper, bonds and securities, stocks, investments, etc. Instead, the real economy is the economy always, industries, factories, agriculture, exploitation of raw materials, work hard.

The peculiarity of Panama is that its economic system rests mainly on "fictitious" economy: financial services and re-exports facing the international market. Although recently the modernization of the service platform with the expansion project of the Panama Canal as the main protagonist, has provided a tremendous boost to the construction sector and facilitated the launch of other activities such as open pit mining (metallic and nonmetallic ).

In this context, market forces have succeeded in beating a weak institutional system for the protection and environmental conservation.

Agriculture and Industry: little contribution to GDP, significant environmental impact.

The Ministry of Economy and Finance of Panama in its 2011 Economic and Social Report shows that agriculture, hunting and forestry experienced a small recovery, manufacturing showed a moderate performance and fishing continued in recession [i] .Some economists have expressed concerns about what they consider the stagnation of manufacturing and agriculture, which have been losing share in the composition of output steadily since 2007. Some activities such as fishing show negative figures since 2009. In particular Exports of most agricultural goods recorded annual declines, down 3.3% y / y (August, 2011) on sales of major products, which is reflected in an increase of only 2 industry , 6% in the first half of 2011.

In turn, the industry has a slow growth (3.2% y / y) where, apart from the production of meat and sugar, few sectors have a positive dynamic. Certainly this situation raises concerns about the ability of local producers to meet the new challenges facing the signing of the FTA with the US, and more recently with the European Union.

The structural weaknesses of agriculture, reflecting the difficulties of the Panamanian economy tertiary self-sufficient in food and agricultural raw materials which certainly goes back to the colonial period. For example, since the late seventeenth century and eighteenth century, wheat became one of the main export products from the interior of Costa Rica to Panama in the form of flour and cake. Also from this territory they were exported products used in the repair of vessels sailing in those years in the Pacific. Cattle reached prominently in exports to Panama, whether he would export up or as derivatives, especially butter [ii] ... centuries away in 2012 the shortage of rice amounts to 444 000 600 quintals of milled rice and 650 million pounds in shell, clean, dry, which will be imported from the United States and Dominican Republic at a cost is $ 24.1 million.

Despite the low contribution of agriculture to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Panama (5%), currently it holds about 20% of the workforce in the country. That is, agriculture contributes little to GDP but is a strategic actor to maintain social stability, rather than compelling argument for applying with lax environmental legislation in this sector.

Moreover, the manufacturing industry accounts for 5.7% of GDP (while in Central America the average is 20.1%), reinforcing the historical position of Panama as a nation of services rather than industrial production; in 2012 food and drinks have the weight of industry in the country. A strict enforcement of environmental legislation Panamanian the agricultural and manufacturing sectors, involves the closure of establishments, with the consequent loss of jobs; for example, the closure of pig farms in the province of Los Santos, would mean the loss of 5,000 direct and indirect jobs.

That is why environmental policy is mainly aimed at promoting cleaner production plans (CP) in some companies in specific sectors such as pig farming, the printing industry, food industry and automotive service shops.

However, they have not decreased environmental impacts such as deforestation associated with ranching, the massive use of agrochemicals, the discharges of liquid and solid waste in rivers and streams, among others.

Increased exports: pillar of economic growth.
For the Panamanian business and political leadership, the dynamic increase in exports is the strategy that will maintain a high growth rate. According to calculations, an average growth rate of 5% per year increase in exports requires an average of about 7% per year, depending on the level of capital movements in the balance of international payments. The consistent achievement of that goal becomes the fundamental objective of promoting exports.
Panama exports are structured by 75% services and 25% of assets, and to increase both sectors is necessary to improve connectivity. According to the National Competitiveness Council (CNC) [iii] exports of services have obvious competitive advantages; However, exporters are real obstacles to be competitive in foreign markets, due to the price of raw materials, cost and training of the workforce, the cost of electricity, export financing and formalities export.

To increase exports of services is necessary to modernize connectivity.
The increase in exports is the main strategy to maintain the pace of economic growth and this is achieved through the modernization of connectivity, which will result in better competitiveness. Improving maritime connectivity with the Canal expansion it is accompanied by the expansion of the entire platform of services including port system, this railway, roads and air connectivity with the improvement and construction of airports, especially the Tocumen International Airport. This infrastructure is financed mainly by the state, using high levels of investment and public indebtedness.

The Panama Canal: protect the water resources of the Basin.
The Panama Canal is a channel through which passes an estimated 5% of global trade. It reported revenues of $ 2.318 million for fiscal 2011, including a record contribution to the National Treasury, according to data of the waterway administrator Alberto Aleman Zubieta.

The administrator said, the support to the National Assembly a report of the fiscal year covered the October 1, 2010 to September 30, 2011 that in the period under review, the ACP gave the country 1.043 billion dollars, the largest amount in 12 years of Panamanian administration of the waterway. We must remember that the Panama Canal administration ended up spending the end of 1999 from US to Panamanian hands, in compliance with the Torrijos-Carter Treaties of 1977. German Zubieta explained that the increase in contributions is the result of record tonnage registered by the Canal and have scored 322.1 million tons PC / UMS (Universal System Tonnage Panama Canal).

Despite the good economic performance, it was considered essential to carry out the expansion of the capacity of the Panama Canal with an estimated of around $ 5250 million investment. This project is justified in terms of improving the connectivity of the Panamanian economy, taking into account that the global trend in maritime trade is the increase of ships and a higher concentration of the business in fewer companies to achieve economies of scale and reduce trade costs. The Panama Canal expansion will allow larger vessels transiting, responding to this demand.

The Panama Canal depends on the natural water of the Chagres River, because without this resource would not have canal. The single channel operation for the transport of boats now consumes a total of 2,801,732,700 m3 / year of water on average. As indicated by the environmental consultant Manuel F. Zarate Pérez,"in terms of matter and energy exchange between open systems, it would seem that the channel material stored in its raw water lakes, which draws energy for Crossing ships and power generation and mass for human consumption. The accumulation in the lakes of the potential energy, typical of the headroom of the channel resource and the liquid mass is transformed into kinetic energy for the work, which ships and turbines generating electricity is transferred " [iv ] .

The strategic value of water for canal operations and therefore for competitiveness and connectivity of the country, has put on the issue of water conservation, giving rise to a consistent in managing and conserving water resources of the Basin Environmental Strategy Canal, the Canal operate efficiently and protect the environment and promote sustainable development of the Basin.

The scholars believe that the canal water strategy must extend to all the waters of the nation, sweets and blue, as a strategic natural resource. Task still pending.

Directly related to the expansion of the canal, they are making significant investments in the port sector to increase cargo movement or storage of fuel. The port system reached until October 2011, an 18% growth in container movement while marine fuel sales reported growth of 15% until last September.

It began operations in 2012 the port of Singapore Authority to be built in the area of ​​Rodman; Panama Ports Company added more gantry cranes at the port of Balboa and to expand its operations in Columbus, opening Oil tanking terminal for storage of fuel on the Atlantic side was given. Recently a contract between the Maritime Authority of Panama and the Panama Canal Colon Port Company, Inc., for the construction, operation and management of a container terminal and general cargo in Margarita Island, in the province of Colon was held, whose investment amounts to $ 593.9 million. The construction of a cruise port in Amador, where there are no facilities to meet the boats that move thousands of tourists are also contemplated.

There are substantial environmental management in the port sector objections, although the National Implementation Plan of the Stockholm Convention in the Republic of Panama (2007)prepared by the Ministry of Health (MOH) indicates that there are "examples of illegal imports, unknown and / or disguised as products, mainly in the seaports of the country and in the Colon Free Zone. A clear example is the import of PCB waste from the US during the years 2004-2006 corresponding to 10.44 Ton “[v] . To address this problem the Meal Plan suggests "Strengthening control and import of hazardous waste through sites chemicals into the country."

The construction and real estate sectors: environmental law an obstacle to the project.
As a result of investments made to the service platform, the GDP growth rate in 2011 reached 10.9%, driven by the construction sector, which grew 18.5%, transport and communications (13.7) and hotels and restaurants (7.6% ).
Investments in the construction sector correspond to the public and private sectors in equal proportion. Government investments were mainly to the expansion of the canal, roads, Metro Line 1 and hospitals. These investments have been outside the focus of the Panamanian environmental organizations, so it must be assumed that run according to the provisions of the corresponding Environmental Impact Studies.

Meanwhile private investors are providing residential projects; individual houses and apartments as well as hotel infrastructure. The real estate sector has become one of the main drivers of economic growth in Panama and one of the agents responsible or negatively impact the environment especially coastal areas (deforestation, sand mining, waste, solid waste, etc.)

One of the most significant and visible impact is the development of real estate projects and urban infrastructure is the destruction of mangrove areas and overall forest cover. Environmental legislation is perceived by developers as harmful as deters investment in key economic sectors such as tourism in coastal areas. To remove this "straitjacket", it was decided - among other measures, reduce the fine for illegal felling of mangrove up to $ 300 000 to a lower figure of $ 40 thousand and permits for felling of mangrove $ 150,000 to 10,000 JD dollars by Resolution No. 020 of 23 May 2012. In addition, the Supreme Court agreed to temporarily protected area status of Wetland Wildlife Refuge Bay of Panama.

Possibly some entrepreneurs believe that the regulatory framework on environmental issues is difficult to meet due to their complexity and adopted a corrective behavior rather than preventive, i.e., apologize and pay the fine, rather than ask permission. The idea that environmental legislation is an obstacle to the development of real estate projects, is not unique to Panama, but an international phenomenon [vi] .

Energy demand and non-metallic mining (sandboxes, quarries).
In 2012, Panamanians consume 1286.5 MW of electricity, just less than 34 MW installed capacity. The trend to higher consumption continues and has led to a situation where demand is about to exceed the available supply. According to estimates by the Ministry of Energy, Panamanians will consume in 2012 a total of 1286.5 MW of energy, an increase of 5.8% over the previous year. However, the net power available-the energy that is available to consumers-is 1,320,5 MW, 34.1 MW barely more than demand. Consequently, economic growth and competitiveness of the country could be compromised if not increase the energy supply.

To meet this demand, various government administrations have promoted the construction of hydroelectric power to the point that about 60% of installed capacity in Panama is "hydro" rising from 770 MW to 1500 MW by the end of 2011. Proponents of companies Hydroelectric have defended this option thermoelectric arguing against high oil prices, also question and disadvantages of wind and solar because they are relatively expensive.

The indigenous uprising in the Shire Ngäbe - Buglé early 2012 against mining on their territory, led to a rejection of hydroelectric within their territories, incorporating a significant social force to the questions that had been making small environmental groups. For the first time, it was seriously questioned the viability of the "hydro" in social and environmental terms. Indigenous leaders focused their criticism on the destruction of rivers changing their courses, and thus the destruction of natural habitats; other arguments as the expropriation of the lands they have occupied since ancient times, and little or no social benefits by the affected or neighboring communities were added to projects.

In addition, farmers in the province of Chiriqui where numerous hydroelectric projects are concentrated, have begun to express concern about the negative effects of these projects for their activities. In March 2012 Arnulfo Morales, president of the National Cattlemen's Beef Association, Chiriqui Chapter, expressed concern about the condition of the Chico River, which lowered its flow so that the cattle watered in the middle of the channel, almost dry ."We are not opposed to progress, but I think that things should be in balance, which in this case has not been respected," he said. Morales, shared his concern about the production sector a few years, since water is the basis of all activity and resource management if not done with balance, agricultural and livestock activities that have sustained the province collapse. The reduced flow in the basin 106, as known to the Piedra river has also caused the delay in the planting program of irrigated rice, users of the irrigation system Remigio Rojas, who this year, programmed 1000 hectares, the Association of Rice Producers of Chiriqui reported [vii].

The business owners "hydro", as with the miners, now trying to seduce an increasingly critical public opinion, in this case with three arguments: that hydroelectric bring with it a was low electricity prices, their projects not affect natural resources and hydropower development leads to a substantial improvement in the quality of life of affected populations.

A more recent issue related to the impact of climate change on hydropower have not yet been incorporated into Panamanian debate. While in Costa Rica, for example, you are starting the discussion to change the energy matrix moving from geothermal to hydropower production, to address climate change. According to Carlos Salazar, Minister of Environment and Energy of Costa Rica “it is increasingly difficult to predict when and where the rains fall even in this difficult financially, hydroelectric projects. No one has done so far (replace hydropower geothermal) but Castro Salazar is encouraged to say: "In the geothermal maybe have the vaccine against climate change" [viii] .

Along with the strong energy demand, the Panamanian economic growth - impulse by the construction sector - is requiring high volumes of sand (the estimated demand is 3 million cubic meters) and stone material. On June 2012 121 concessions were recorded throughout the national territory for extracting limestone, continental arena, underwater sand, quarried stone, gravel and gravel, river gravel, etc. [ix].

In response to industry demand, in June 2012 the National Assembly passed a law that reduced the payment of the ARENA companies to municipalities; the original proposal of $ 1.00 per cubic meter extracted decreased to 0.40 cents (currently 0.35 cents is paid). The minister argued that such reduction was made ​​"looking it is that the houses are not more expensive for tax too high" [x] .

Objections to the activities of the ARENA mainly from the municipalities, which are demanding that these companies are evading taxes, the absence of controls on their operations and neglectful attitude of government officials involved. General calculations based on information obtained by various companies engaged in the business of extracting and selling underwater sand set in around $ 8 the cost of producing a yard underwater sand while it is sold at about $ 16 or $ 20 per yard. The price varies according to production process efficiency, which depends on the size of the boat, the distance away from the port and storage yard [xi].

Strong demand for sand is accompanied by the proliferation of concessions, according to environmentalists is causing diversions of riverbeds, erosion, loss of wildlife, air pollution and floods. The impacts are especially visible in the mangroves, product extraction continental arena, where moisture is lost, affecting the flora and the birds lose their nesting sites. Who they offer these arguments consider that it is not giving due importance to the environmental impacts [xii].

The ARENA is complemented exploitation quarries. As is known, the stone quarries limestone and clay is extracted through drilling and blasting with explosives. To the extent that new concessions are closer and closer to population centers, community conflicts arise. A recent example is the rejection of the concession contract for the operation of a quarry in Cerro Cabra located between the villages of Veracruz and Arraijan, by the inhabitants and local authorities. The arguments relating to the possible contamination of water sources and deteriorating housing about 15 thousand inhabitants of five communities (the company would make about 10 daily detonations to extract at least 2 thousand cubic meters of stone quarry) . It also mentioned other reasons rather than cultural and historical type: the flag of the district that was drawn up early in the last decade appears the hill, and the subject of poetry contests [xiii] .

Free exports of goods (the growth of mining) pathway.

The total value of Panamanian exports from January to October 2011 totaled $ 660.4 million, $ 33.9 million more than in the same period of 2010. The main exported goods were, in order: gold for non-monetary purposes ($ 99 million), bananas ($ 69.8 million), sugar cane ($ 37.2 million), and waste iron and steel ($ 34.7 million).

The value of gold exports, exceeds that of any other product in the last three years. This is due both to the increase in export volumes (29.6%), as the international price of this mineral by the high demand has encouraged the critical situation in the financial market. Gold exports contributed 32.5% more foreign exchange.

According to Panama Camipa accounting mining potential has so far 12 gold and copper reserves including proven Chocha (gold and copper) mentioned in Bocas del Toro; Cerro Colorado (copper) in Chiriqui; Cerro Pelado (gold) in the Ngäbe Bugle; Santa Rosa and Remance (gold) in Veraguas; Molejón and Petaquilla (gold and copper) in Cocle del Norte; Cerro Quema (gold) in Tonosí Cold Wind (gold) in Columbus and Zioro (gold) in Capira.

If you stick to the estimates made by Camipa profit that the Panamanian mining sector obtained are enormous. In the three reserves of copper deposits in the order of 47,200 million pounds they are calculated, which, valued at $ 3.00 a pound, would generate gross revenue $ 141,600 million. While gold deposits in reserves accounted for 8.3 million ounces, which is close to the current price in more than $ 11,830 million, for a total in both minerals above $ 150,000 million. Not to mention the likely suspect sites that exist in the north of Veraguas or the rest of the Ngäbe Bugle [xiv] .

The decision to push open the metal mining (mainly gold and copper) as the main export of goods sky, to complement the traditional export of services, not merely because of the existence of deposits, but complementarity with platform services. Mining Chamber of Panama (Camipa) has been considered as the main opportunity for mining investment, banking and international financial, channel, international multimodal transport system including roads and trans-isthmus train, and the largest hub port in Latin America 7 private ports on both oceans.

Moreover, for bankers and traders who have controlled the economic life of Panama, mining is an activity that does not compete with its historic interest and offers the opportunity to diversify and expand its investment in partnership with international mining corporations. In addition, the deposits are located in the "periphery" of the trans-isthmus axis in the "interior" of the country, which contributes little to GDP and where a rural population is located in poverty and extreme poverty. Mining, from this perspective, is a means to "enhance" these disconnected from the service economy and international markets territories, contributing step to improve the standard of living of the residents.

Rather than expected by employers and mining corporations, several indigenous communities and settlements poor peasants did not receive mining as an opportunity to overcome poverty, but as a threat that could lead the destruction their habitats and the expulsion of the territories they have traditionally occupied. The attempt to start operating the largest copper deposit that has Panama: Cerro Colorado, located in the Ngäbe Bugle, and is considered one of the largest in Latin America, faced fierce opposition from this ethnic group.

In February 2012 ngäbe conducted hundreds of different closures of the Panamerican Highway, triggering a serious confrontation with the police that caused two dead and dozens injured. The Panamanian public opinion, according to polls conducted mostly supported the struggle of the Ngäbes and spoke out against the metal strip mining for its negative environmental implications. Finally, the Government accepted that mining concessions granted were canceled and Law 41 of 1975, which authorizes the Cerro Colorado mining project repeal.

The indigenous protest sparked an intense debate in Panama, as has happened in many countries in Latin America. Advertising mining companies failed to reverse an adverse public opinion that there was seduced by promises of more jobs and generate foreign exchange. It outweighed concerns about environmental impacts, especially after the media disclose the photos about the levels of deforestation caused in operation areas.

The concern turned to alarm, especially if we consider that more than one million inhabitants of Panama City faced shortages of drinking water in December 2010 and January 2011, as a result of turbidity of the lake that supplies the Alajuela the country's main water treatment plant located in Chilibre. This turbidity was attributed to the intense deforestation that is recorded on the banks of the Chagres River and other tributaries of Lake Alajuela. The Panamanian government was forced to import even bottled water from Costa Rica to alleviate the crisis.

This water crisis Panamanian population sensitized on the need to conserve natural resources, especially forests. So when ngäbe uprising ensued, even though it took place in a remote area to the capital city, Panamanians immediately identified with the claims of indigenous peoples.

Mining companies in response began to develop the concept of "sustainable mining" in terms of the implementation of environmental legislation in the mining sector and mainly announcing boosting reforestation projects. For example, on the website (December, 2011) of the company Minera Panama statements Ernest Mast, President and CEO of Minera Panama, which "indicated that the reforestation projects of the company are developed in different disclosed regions, and have as objectives ecological restoration, conservation of biodiversity and the creation of opportunities for models of sustainable living communities, compromising the use of native species and planting 10 million trees in the next 30 years " [xv] .

Moreover, the Camipa seems to have taken the position not only minimize environmental impacts of open-pit metal mining, but also to adhere to the position that denies the existence of a global climate change as a result of incorrect decisions being human. On its website http://www.camipa.org the article "Report Excerpt from US, Senate Committee on Environment & Public Work", alluding to numerous citations of scientists including the following is published: " There is no observational evidence the addition of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases have caused disturbances in any temperature of the atmosphere "(Dr. George T. Wolff). The following statement attributed to Robert L. Scotto also quote: “Based on the laws of physics, the effect of man's contribution rising levels of atmospheric CO2 is miniscule and imperceptible, natural variability is caused largely by the changes in production of solar energy.”

Conclusions.

The axis transisthmian Panama - Colón, where the most important services platform in Latin America is based, has concentrated and centralized population, economic resources and political power factors. The rest of the territory, especially where indigenous communities reside and poor peasants, have occupied a marginal position in every way. The requirements of economic growth and improving the competitiveness of the service economy has recovered in the last decade these territories in terms of energy sources (hydroelectric), continental and underwater sand and quarry stones, gold and copper and these latest strategic products to boost exports.

The social implications are obvious. The rich soil and subsoil lies on occupied by a population with low education, a foreign culture (they speak in their own language) to the business community, subsistence economy and strong attachment to their land territories. Link them to the market economy as employees is possible but after a more or less lengthy process of job training, and eradicate them from the areas where the fields and rivers lead to social confrontation as has already occurred. Therefore, Panama's economic growth has begun to clash with the resistance of social groups and communities, which threatens the stability and governance (along with other situations that are not discussed in this article).

Panama's economic growth also faces environmental dilemmas, as mentioned above. At this point we should ask ourselves: What is the economic "model" that guides the decisions of economic and political leadership of this country. These sectors, without any distinction, have insisted on presenting Panama as the "Dubai of the Americas" especially during meetings with EU and US business. Dubai is a small state of the United Arab Emirates in recent years has become famous for the huge skyscrapers.

Actually the comparison relates specifically to the city of Panama: “... buildings currently averaging 50 floors and premium tend to dominate the city from above. Each new tower looks like a symbol set on the horizon, until they reach another higher or showy than snatches the role “[16].

Hence the need to reflect on the environmental consequences of this growth model: “During the process of building large offshore Gulf areas were dredged for sand serve to create the islands. While millions of tons of sand were dumped a few kilometers from the coast, sometimes thousands of tons of solid rock and gravel were obtained from land and also discharging into the sea. This prompted on marine life in the area were deposited thousands of tons of gravel, sand and rock that buried alive corals and many animals in the area. Today, the beaches are in a kind of lifeless pond contaminated with algae and water quality inauspicious for any type of activity. Finally erosion and cause havoc. As artificial islands form, created by humans, it must also be maintained artificially as it has not been the sea that has carved its edges. The islands are already places where the beach has just been eaten by the sea “[xvi].

[I] MEF, Economic and Social Report 2011. http://www.mef.gob.pa/Documentos-Analisis-Economico-Social/Actividad%20econ%C3%B3mica%20-%202011.pdf
[Ii] Juan Carlos Solórzano Fonseca, trade relations of Costa Rica in the Pacific (1575-1821). In: http://www.lacayo.com/aFAMILY/Link2.pdf
[Iii] CNC, the potential exporter of agricultural and agro Panama. http://www.cncpanama.org/email1/boletines/72.pdf
[Iv] Manuel F. Zarate Pérez, water and the development of the Panama Canal, http://www.usma.ac.pa/web/DI/images/IPC%20No.%203/p.14-20% 20% 20Zarate1.pdf
[V] National Implementation Plan of the Stockholm Convention in the Republic of Panama. http://wqce.sica.int/busqueda/busqueda_archivo.aspx?Archivo=odoc_57509_1_03032011.pdf, p. 67.
[Vi] Alberto Silva, the environment and regulation: A Risk for Sector Inmobiliario?, http://goodrichriquelme.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Riesgos-ambientales-en-el-sector-inmobiliario-Autoguardado.pdf
[Vi] Mines: Potential vs. Environmental sacrifice. In: Capital. http://www.capital.com.pa/minas-potencial-vs-sacrificio-ambiental/.
[Vii]Hydroelectric threaten traditional activities. http://www.elinformedavid.com/hidroelectricas-amenazan-actividades-tradicionales/
[Viii]Geothermal energy as a solution to climate change. http://espaciosustentable.com/geotermia-como-solucion-al-cambio-climatico/.
[Ix] No Metal Contracts June 2012 - ICIM.
[X] http://www.prensa.com/impreso/panorama/gobierno-complacio-mineras/80102
[Xi]http://www.prensa.com/impreso/panorama/concesiones-y-traspasos-del-negocio-arenero/101312
[Xii]Environmental Stress by extraction. In: http://www.martesfinanciero.com/history/2009/07/21/informe_central.asp
[Xiii] http://www.laestrella.com.pa/online/impreso/2012/07/06/rechazo-a-cantera-llega-a-la-corte.asp
[Xiv] Mines: Potential vs. Environmental sacrifice. In: Capital. http://www.capital.com.pa/minas-potencial-vs-sacrificio-ambiental/.
[Xv] Minera Panama will plant 10 million trees of native species nationwide. http://www.minerapanama.com/es/noticias/item/85-desarrollo-sostenible
[Xv] Patricia Toquica, Panama, is the Dubai of Latin America? In: http://www.revistadiners.com.co/articulo/45_237_panama-la-dubai-de-latinoamerica
 [Xvi] The artificial islands of Dubai, the environmental failure. In: http://blogs.eluniversal.com.mx/weblogs_detalle16116.html

No hay comentarios:

Publicar un comentario