Francisco Rivas Ríos.
The
international financial crisis has spread two concepts: "financial
economy" and "real economy." The financial economy
would be one based on the financial system, commercial paper, bonds and
securities, stocks, investments, etc. Instead,
the real economy is the economy always, industries, factories, agriculture,
exploitation of raw materials, work hard.
The
peculiarity of Panama is that its economic system rests mainly on
"fictitious" economy: financial services and re-exports facing the
international market. Although recently the modernization of the service platform
with the expansion project of the Panama Canal as the main protagonist, has
provided a tremendous boost to the construction sector and facilitated the
launch of other activities such as open pit mining (metallic and nonmetallic ).
In
this context, market forces have succeeded in beating a weak institutional
system for the protection and environmental conservation.
Agriculture and
Industry: little contribution to GDP, significant environmental impact.
The
Ministry of Economy and Finance of Panama in its 2011 Economic and Social
Report shows that agriculture, hunting and forestry experienced a small
recovery, manufacturing showed a moderate performance and fishing continued in
recession [i] .Some economists have expressed
concerns about what they consider the stagnation of manufacturing and
agriculture, which have been losing share in the composition of output steadily
since 2007. Some activities such as fishing show negative figures since 2009.
In particular Exports of most agricultural goods recorded annual declines, down
3.3% y / y (August, 2011) on sales of major products, which is reflected in an
increase of only 2 industry , 6% in the first half of 2011.
In
turn, the industry has a slow growth (3.2% y / y) where, apart from the
production of meat and sugar, few sectors have a positive dynamic. Certainly this situation
raises concerns about the ability of local producers to meet the new challenges
facing the signing of the FTA with the US, and more recently with the European
Union.
The
structural weaknesses of agriculture, reflecting the difficulties of the
Panamanian economy tertiary self-sufficient in food and agricultural raw
materials which certainly goes back to the colonial period. For example, since the
late seventeenth century and eighteenth century, wheat became one of the main
export products from the interior of Costa Rica to Panama in the form of flour
and cake. Also from this territory they
were exported products used in the repair of vessels sailing in those years in
the Pacific. Cattle reached prominently in
exports to Panama, whether he would export up or as derivatives, especially
butter [ii] ... centuries away in 2012 the shortage of rice
amounts to 444 000 600 quintals of milled rice and 650 million pounds in shell,
clean, dry, which will be imported from the United States and Dominican
Republic at a cost is $ 24.1 million.
Despite
the low contribution of agriculture to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Panama (5%),
currently it holds about 20% of the workforce in the country. That is, agriculture
contributes little to GDP but is a strategic actor to maintain social
stability, rather than compelling argument for applying with lax environmental
legislation in this sector.
Moreover,
the manufacturing industry accounts for 5.7% of GDP (while in Central America
the average is 20.1%), reinforcing the historical position of Panama as a
nation of services rather than industrial production; in 2012 food and drinks
have the weight of industry in the country. A strict enforcement of
environmental legislation Panamanian the agricultural and manufacturing sectors, involves the closure of
establishments, with the consequent loss of jobs; for example, the closure of
pig farms in the province of Los Santos, would mean the loss of 5,000 direct
and indirect jobs.
That
is why environmental policy is mainly aimed at promoting cleaner production
plans (CP) in some companies in specific sectors such as pig farming, the
printing industry, food industry and automotive service shops.
However, they have not decreased
environmental impacts such as deforestation associated with ranching, the
massive use of agrochemicals, the discharges of liquid and solid waste in
rivers and streams, among others.
Increased exports: pillar of economic
growth.
For the Panamanian business and
political leadership, the dynamic increase in exports is the strategy that will
maintain a high growth rate. According to calculations, an average
growth rate of 5% per year increase in exports requires an average of about 7%
per year, depending on the level of capital movements in the balance of
international payments. The consistent achievement of that goal
becomes the fundamental objective of promoting exports.
Panama exports are structured by 75%
services and 25% of assets, and to increase both sectors is necessary to
improve connectivity. According to the National Competitiveness
Council (CNC) [iii] exports of services have obvious competitive advantages; However, exporters are real obstacles to be competitive in foreign
markets, due to the price of raw materials, cost and training of the workforce,
the cost of electricity, export financing and formalities export.
To increase exports of services is
necessary to modernize connectivity.
The increase in exports is the main
strategy to maintain the pace of economic growth and this is achieved through
the modernization of connectivity, which will result in better competitiveness. Improving maritime connectivity with the
Canal expansion it is accompanied by the expansion of the entire platform of
services including port system, this railway, roads and air connectivity with
the improvement and construction of airports, especially the Tocumen
International Airport. This infrastructure is financed mainly by the
state, using high levels of investment and public indebtedness.
The Panama Canal: protect the water
resources of the Basin.
The Panama Canal is a channel through
which passes an estimated 5% of global trade. It reported revenues of $ 2.318 million
for fiscal 2011, including a record contribution to the National Treasury,
according to data of the waterway administrator Alberto Aleman Zubieta.
The administrator said, the support to
the National Assembly a report of the fiscal year covered the October 1, 2010
to September 30, 2011 that in the period under review, the ACP gave the country
1.043 billion dollars, the largest amount in 12 years of Panamanian
administration of the waterway. We must remember that the Panama Canal
administration ended up spending the end of 1999 from US to Panamanian hands,
in compliance with the Torrijos-Carter Treaties of 1977. German Zubieta
explained that the increase in contributions is the result of record tonnage
registered by the Canal and have scored 322.1 million tons PC / UMS (Universal
System Tonnage Panama Canal).
Despite the good economic performance,
it was considered essential to carry out the expansion of the capacity of the
Panama Canal with an estimated of around $ 5250 million investment. This project is justified in
terms of improving the connectivity of the Panamanian economy, taking into
account that the global trend in maritime trade is the increase of ships and a
higher concentration of the business in fewer companies to achieve economies of
scale and reduce trade costs. The Panama Canal expansion will allow
larger vessels transiting, responding to this demand.
The Panama Canal depends on the natural
water of the Chagres River, because without this resource would not have canal. The single channel operation for the
transport of boats now consumes a total of 2,801,732,700 m3 / year of water on
average. As indicated by the environmental
consultant Manuel F. Zarate Pérez,"in terms of matter and energy
exchange between open systems, it would seem that the channel material stored
in its raw water lakes, which draws energy for Crossing ships and power
generation and mass for human consumption. The
accumulation in the lakes of the potential energy, typical of the headroom of
the channel resource and the liquid mass is transformed into kinetic energy for
the work, which ships and turbines generating electricity is transferred " [iv ] .
The strategic value of water for canal
operations and therefore for competitiveness and connectivity of the country,
has put on the issue of water conservation, giving rise to a consistent in
managing and conserving water resources of the Basin Environmental Strategy
Canal, the Canal operate efficiently and protect the environment and promote
sustainable development of the Basin.
The scholars believe that the canal
water strategy must extend to all the waters of the nation, sweets and blue, as
a strategic natural resource. Task still pending.
Directly related to the expansion of the
canal, they are making significant investments in the port sector to increase cargo movement or storage of
fuel. The port system reached until October
2011, an 18% growth in container movement while marine fuel sales reported
growth of 15% until last September.
It began operations in 2012 the port of
Singapore Authority to be built in the area of Rodman; Panama Ports Company added more gantry
cranes at the port of Balboa and to expand its operations in Columbus, opening Oil
tanking terminal for storage of fuel on the Atlantic side was given. Recently a contract between the Maritime
Authority of Panama and the Panama Canal Colon Port Company, Inc., for the
construction, operation and management of a container terminal and general
cargo in Margarita Island, in the province of Colon was held, whose investment
amounts to $ 593.9 million. The construction of a cruise port in
Amador, where there are no facilities to meet the boats that move thousands of
tourists are also contemplated.
There are substantial environmental
management in the port sector objections, although the National Implementation Plan of the
Stockholm Convention in the Republic of Panama (2007)prepared
by the Ministry of Health (MOH) indicates that there are "examples of illegal imports,
unknown and / or disguised as products, mainly in the seaports of the country
and in the Colon Free Zone. A
clear example is the import of PCB waste from the US during the years 2004-2006
corresponding to 10.44 Ton “[v] . To address this problem the Meal Plan
suggests "Strengthening control and import
of hazardous waste through sites chemicals into the country."
The construction and real estate
sectors: environmental law an obstacle to the project.
As a result of investments made to the
service platform, the GDP growth rate in 2011 reached 10.9%, driven by the
construction sector, which grew 18.5%, transport and communications (13.7) and
hotels and restaurants (7.6% ).
Investments in the construction sector
correspond to the public and private sectors in equal proportion. Government investments were mainly to
the expansion of the canal, roads, Metro Line 1 and hospitals. These investments have been outside the
focus of the Panamanian environmental organizations, so it must be assumed that
run according to the provisions of the corresponding Environmental Impact
Studies.
Meanwhile private investors are
providing residential projects; individual houses and apartments as well as hotel
infrastructure. The
real estate sector has become one of the main drivers of economic growth in
Panama and one of the agents responsible or negatively impact the environment
especially coastal areas (deforestation, sand mining, waste, solid waste, etc.)
One of the most significant and visible
impact is the development of real estate projects and urban infrastructure is
the destruction of mangrove areas and overall forest cover. Environmental legislation is perceived
by developers as harmful as deters investment in key economic sectors such as
tourism in coastal areas. To remove this "straitjacket",
it was decided - among other measures, reduce the fine for illegal felling of
mangrove up to $ 300 000 to a lower figure of $ 40 thousand and permits for
felling of mangrove $ 150,000 to 10,000 JD dollars by Resolution No. 020 of 23 May 2012. In addition, the
Supreme Court agreed to temporarily protected area status of Wetland Wildlife
Refuge Bay of Panama.
Possibly some entrepreneurs believe that
the regulatory framework on environmental issues is difficult to meet due to
their complexity and adopted a corrective behavior rather than preventive, i.e.,
apologize and pay the fine, rather than ask permission. The idea that environmental legislation
is an obstacle to the development of real estate projects, is not unique to
Panama, but an international phenomenon [vi] .
Energy demand and non-metallic mining
(sandboxes, quarries).
In 2012, Panamanians consume 1286.5 MW
of electricity, just less than 34 MW installed capacity. The trend to higher consumption
continues and has led to a situation where demand is about to exceed the
available supply. According to estimates by the Ministry
of Energy, Panamanians will consume in 2012 a total of 1286.5 MW of energy, an
increase of 5.8% over the previous year. However, the net power available-the
energy that is available to consumers-is 1,320,5 MW, 34.1 MW barely more than
demand. Consequently,
economic growth and competitiveness of the country could be compromised if not
increase the energy supply.
To meet this demand, various government
administrations have promoted the construction of hydroelectric power to the
point that about 60% of installed capacity in Panama is "hydro"
rising from 770 MW to 1500 MW by the end of 2011. Proponents of companies
Hydroelectric have defended this option thermoelectric arguing against high oil
prices, also question and disadvantages of wind and solar because they are
relatively expensive.
The indigenous uprising in the Shire
Ngäbe - Buglé early 2012 against mining on their territory, led to a rejection
of hydroelectric within their territories, incorporating a significant social
force to the questions that had been making small environmental groups. For the first time, it was
seriously questioned the viability of the "hydro" in social and
environmental terms. Indigenous leaders focused their
criticism on the destruction of rivers changing their courses, and thus the
destruction of natural habitats; other arguments as the expropriation of
the lands they have occupied since ancient times, and little or no social
benefits by the affected or neighboring communities were added to projects.
In addition, farmers in the province of
Chiriqui where numerous hydroelectric projects are concentrated, have begun to
express concern about the negative effects of these projects for their
activities. In March 2012 Arnulfo Morales, president
of the National Cattlemen's Beef Association, Chiriqui Chapter, expressed
concern about the condition of the Chico River, which lowered its flow so that
the cattle watered in the middle of the channel, almost dry ."We are not opposed to
progress, but I think that things should be in balance, which in this case has
not been respected," he said. Morales, shared his concern about the production sector
a few years, since water is the basis of all activity and resource management
if not done with balance, agricultural and livestock activities that have
sustained the province collapse. The reduced flow in the basin 106, as
known to the Piedra river has also caused the delay in the planting program of
irrigated rice, users of the irrigation system Remigio Rojas, who this year,
programmed 1000 hectares, the Association of Rice Producers of Chiriqui
reported [vii].
The business owners "hydro",
as with the miners, now trying to seduce an increasingly critical public
opinion, in this case with three arguments: that hydroelectric bring with it a
was low electricity prices, their projects not affect natural resources and
hydropower development leads to a substantial improvement in the quality of
life of affected populations.
A more recent issue related to the
impact of climate change on hydropower have not yet been incorporated into
Panamanian debate. While in Costa Rica, for example, you
are starting the discussion to change the energy matrix moving from geothermal
to hydropower production, to address climate change. According to Carlos Salazar, Minister of
Environment and Energy of Costa Rica “it is increasingly difficult to
predict when and where the rains fall even in this difficult financially,
hydroelectric projects. No one has done so far (replace
hydropower geothermal) but Castro Salazar is encouraged to say: "In the
geothermal maybe have the vaccine against climate change" [viii] .
Along with the strong energy demand, the Panamanian economic growth - impulse by the construction sector - is requiring high volumes of sand (the estimated demand is 3 million cubic meters) and stone material. On June 2012 121 concessions were recorded throughout the national territory for extracting limestone, continental arena, underwater sand, quarried stone, gravel and gravel, river gravel, etc. [ix].
In response to
industry demand, in June 2012 the National Assembly passed a law that reduced
the payment of the ARENA companies to municipalities; the original proposal of
$ 1.00 per
cubic meter extracted decreased to 0.40 cents (currently 0.35 cents is paid). The minister argued that such reduction was made "looking it is that the houses are not more
expensive for tax too high" [x] .
Objections to the
activities of the ARENA mainly from the municipalities, which are demanding
that these companies are evading taxes, the absence of controls on their
operations and neglectful attitude of government officials involved. General
calculations based on information obtained by various companies engaged in the
business of extracting and selling underwater sand set in around $ 8 the cost
of producing a yard underwater sand while it is sold at about $ 16 or $ 20 per
yard. The price varies according to production process efficiency, which
depends on the size of the boat, the distance away from the port and storage
yard [xi].
Strong demand for sand is
accompanied by the proliferation of concessions, according to environmentalists
is causing diversions of riverbeds, erosion, loss of wildlife, air pollution
and floods. The impacts are especially visible in the mangroves, product extraction
continental arena, where moisture is lost, affecting the flora and the birds
lose their nesting sites. Who they offer these arguments consider that it is
not giving due importance to the environmental impacts [xii].
The ARENA is complemented
exploitation quarries. As is known, the stone quarries limestone and clay is
extracted through drilling and blasting with explosives. To the extent that new
concessions are closer and closer to population centers, community conflicts
arise. A recent example is the rejection of the concession contract for the
operation of a quarry in Cerro Cabra located between the villages of Veracruz
and Arraijan, by the inhabitants and local authorities. The arguments relating
to the possible contamination of water sources and deteriorating housing about
15 thousand inhabitants of five communities (the company would make about 10
daily detonations to extract at least 2 thousand cubic meters of stone quarry)
. It also mentioned other reasons rather than cultural and historical type: the
flag of the district that was drawn up early in the last decade appears the
hill, and the subject of poetry contests [xiii] .
Free exports
of goods (the growth of mining) pathway.
The total value of
Panamanian exports from January to October 2011 totaled $ 660.4 million, $ 33.9
million more than in the same period of 2010. The main exported goods were, in
order: gold for non-monetary purposes ($ 99 million), bananas ($ 69.8 million),
sugar cane ($ 37.2 million), and waste iron and steel ($ 34.7 million).
The value of gold exports,
exceeds that of any other product in the last three years. This is due both to
the increase in export volumes (29.6%), as the international price of this
mineral by the high demand has encouraged the critical situation in the
financial market. Gold exports contributed 32.5% more foreign exchange.
According to Panama Camipa
accounting mining potential has so far 12 gold and copper reserves including
proven Chocha (gold and copper) mentioned in Bocas del Toro; Cerro Colorado
(copper) in Chiriqui; Cerro Pelado (gold) in the Ngäbe Bugle; Santa Rosa and
Remance (gold) in Veraguas; Molejón and Petaquilla (gold and copper) in Cocle
del Norte; Cerro Quema (gold) in Tonosí Cold Wind (gold) in Columbus and Zioro
(gold) in Capira.
If you stick to the
estimates made by Camipa profit that the Panamanian mining sector obtained are
enormous. In the three reserves of copper deposits in the order of 47,200
million pounds they are calculated, which, valued at $ 3.00 a pound, would generate
gross revenue $ 141,600 million. While gold deposits in reserves accounted for
8.3 million ounces, which is close to the current price in more than $ 11,830
million, for a total in both minerals above $ 150,000 million. Not to mention
the likely suspect sites that exist in the north of Veraguas or the rest of the
Ngäbe Bugle [xiv] .
The decision to push open
the metal mining (mainly gold and copper) as the main export of goods sky, to
complement the traditional export of services, not merely because of the
existence of deposits, but complementarity with platform services. Mining
Chamber of Panama (Camipa) has been considered as the main opportunity for
mining investment, banking and international financial, channel, international
multimodal transport system including roads and trans-isthmus train, and the
largest hub port in Latin America 7 private ports on both oceans.
Moreover, for bankers and
traders who have controlled the economic life of Panama, mining is an activity
that does not compete with its historic interest and offers the opportunity to
diversify and expand its investment in partnership with international mining
corporations. In addition, the deposits are located in the
"periphery" of the trans-isthmus axis in the "interior" of
the country, which contributes little to GDP and where a rural population is
located in poverty and extreme poverty. Mining, from this perspective, is a
means to "enhance" these disconnected from the service economy and
international markets territories, contributing step to improve the standard of
living of the residents.
Rather than expected by
employers and mining corporations, several indigenous communities and
settlements poor peasants did not receive mining as an opportunity to overcome
poverty, but as a threat that could lead the destruction their habitats and the
expulsion of the territories they have traditionally occupied. The attempt to
start operating the largest copper deposit that has Panama: Cerro Colorado,
located in the Ngäbe Bugle, and is considered one of the largest in Latin
America, faced fierce opposition from this ethnic group.
In February 2012 ngäbe
conducted hundreds of different closures of the Panamerican Highway, triggering
a serious confrontation with the police that caused two dead and dozens
injured. The Panamanian public opinion, according to polls conducted mostly
supported the struggle of the Ngäbes and spoke out against the metal strip
mining for its negative environmental implications. Finally, the Government
accepted that mining concessions granted were canceled and Law 41 of 1975,
which authorizes the Cerro Colorado mining project repeal.
The indigenous protest
sparked an intense debate in Panama, as has happened in many countries in Latin
America. Advertising mining companies failed to reverse an adverse public
opinion that there was seduced by promises of more jobs and generate foreign exchange.
It outweighed concerns about environmental impacts, especially after the media
disclose the photos about the levels of deforestation caused in operation
areas.
The concern turned to
alarm, especially if we consider that more than one million inhabitants of
Panama City faced shortages of drinking water in December 2010 and January
2011, as a result of turbidity of the lake that supplies the Alajuela the
country's main water treatment plant located in Chilibre. This turbidity was
attributed to the intense deforestation that is recorded on the banks of the
Chagres River and other tributaries of Lake Alajuela. The Panamanian government
was forced to import even bottled water from Costa Rica to alleviate the
crisis.
This water crisis
Panamanian population sensitized on the need to conserve natural resources,
especially forests. So when ngäbe uprising ensued, even though it took place in
a remote area to the capital city, Panamanians immediately identified with the
claims of indigenous peoples.
Mining companies in
response began to develop the concept of "sustainable mining" in
terms of the implementation of environmental legislation in the mining sector
and mainly announcing boosting reforestation projects. For example, on the
website (December, 2011) of the company Minera Panama statements Ernest Mast,
President and CEO of Minera Panama, which "indicated that the
reforestation projects of the company are developed in different disclosed
regions, and have as objectives ecological restoration, conservation of
biodiversity and the creation of opportunities for models of sustainable living
communities, compromising the use of native species and planting 10 million
trees in the next 30 years " [xv] .
Moreover, the Camipa seems
to have taken the position not only minimize environmental impacts of open-pit
metal mining, but also to adhere to the position that denies the existence of a
global climate change as a result of incorrect decisions being human. On its
website http://www.camipa.org the article "Report Excerpt from US, Senate Committee
on Environment & Public Work", alluding to numerous citations of
scientists including the following is published: " There is no
observational evidence the addition of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse
gases have caused disturbances in any temperature of the atmosphere "(Dr.
George T. Wolff). The following statement attributed to Robert L. Scotto also
quote: “Based on the laws of physics, the effect of man's contribution rising
levels of atmospheric CO2 is miniscule and imperceptible, natural variability
is caused largely by the changes in production of solar energy.”
Conclusions.
The axis transisthmian
Panama - Colón, where the most important services platform in Latin America is
based, has concentrated and centralized population, economic resources and
political power factors. The rest of the territory, especially where indigenous
communities reside and poor peasants, have occupied a marginal position in
every way. The requirements of economic growth and improving the
competitiveness of the service economy has recovered in the last decade these
territories in terms of energy sources (hydroelectric), continental and
underwater sand and quarry stones, gold and copper and these latest strategic
products to boost exports.
The social implications are
obvious. The rich soil and subsoil lies on occupied by a population with low
education, a foreign culture (they speak in their own language) to the business
community, subsistence economy and strong attachment to their land territories.
Link them to the market economy as employees is possible but after a more or
less lengthy process of job training, and eradicate them from the areas where
the fields and rivers lead to social confrontation as has already occurred.
Therefore, Panama's economic growth has begun to clash with the resistance of
social groups and communities, which threatens the stability and governance
(along with other situations that are not discussed in this article).
Panama's economic growth
also faces environmental dilemmas, as mentioned above. At this point we should
ask ourselves: What is the economic "model" that guides the decisions
of economic and political leadership of this country. These sectors, without
any distinction, have insisted on presenting Panama as the "Dubai of the
Americas" especially during meetings with EU and US business. Dubai is a
small state of the United Arab Emirates in recent years has become famous for
the huge skyscrapers.
Actually the comparison
relates specifically to the city of Panama: “... buildings currently averaging
50 floors and premium tend to dominate the city from above. Each new tower
looks like a symbol set on the horizon, until they reach another higher or
showy than snatches the role “[16].
Hence the need to reflect
on the environmental consequences of this growth model: “During the process of
building large offshore Gulf areas were dredged for sand serve to create the
islands. While millions of tons of sand were dumped a few kilometers from the
coast, sometimes thousands of tons of solid rock and gravel were obtained from
land and also discharging into the sea. This prompted on marine life in the
area were deposited thousands of tons of gravel, sand and rock that buried
alive corals and many animals in the area. Today, the beaches are in a kind of
lifeless pond contaminated with algae and water quality inauspicious for any
type of activity. Finally erosion and cause havoc. As artificial islands form,
created by humans, it must also be maintained artificially as it has not been
the sea that has carved its edges. The islands are already places where the
beach has just been eaten by the sea “[xvi].
[I] MEF, Economic and
Social Report 2011. http://www.mef.gob.pa/Documentos-Analisis-Economico-Social/Actividad%20econ%C3%B3mica%20-%202011.pdf
[Ii] Juan Carlos Solórzano
Fonseca, trade relations of Costa Rica in the Pacific (1575-1821). In:
http://www.lacayo.com/aFAMILY/Link2.pdf
[Iii] CNC, the potential
exporter of agricultural and agro Panama.
http://www.cncpanama.org/email1/boletines/72.pdf
[Iv] Manuel F. Zarate
Pérez, water and the development of the Panama Canal,
http://www.usma.ac.pa/web/DI/images/IPC%20No.%203/p.14-20% 20% 20Zarate1.pdf
[V] National Implementation
Plan of the Stockholm Convention in the Republic of Panama.
http://wqce.sica.int/busqueda/busqueda_archivo.aspx?Archivo=odoc_57509_1_03032011.pdf,
p. 67.
[Vi] Alberto Silva, the
environment and regulation: A Risk for Sector Inmobiliario?,
http://goodrichriquelme.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Riesgos-ambientales-en-el-sector-inmobiliario-Autoguardado.pdf
[Vi] Mines: Potential vs.
Environmental sacrifice. In: Capital. http://www.capital.com.pa/minas-potencial-vs-sacrificio-ambiental/.
[Vii]Hydroelectric
threaten traditional activities.
http://www.elinformedavid.com/hidroelectricas-amenazan-actividades-tradicionales/
[Viii]Geothermal energy as
a solution to climate change. http://espaciosustentable.com/geotermia-como-solucion-al-cambio-climatico/.
[Ix] No Metal Contracts
June 2012 - ICIM.
[X]
http://www.prensa.com/impreso/panorama/gobierno-complacio-mineras/80102
[Xi]http://www.prensa.com/impreso/panorama/concesiones-y-traspasos-del-negocio-arenero/101312
[Xii]Environmental Stress
by extraction. In:
http://www.martesfinanciero.com/history/2009/07/21/informe_central.asp
[Xiii]
http://www.laestrella.com.pa/online/impreso/2012/07/06/rechazo-a-cantera-llega-a-la-corte.asp
[Xiv] Mines: Potential vs.
Environmental sacrifice. In: Capital. http://www.capital.com.pa/minas-potencial-vs-sacrificio-ambiental/.
[Xv] Minera Panama will
plant 10 million trees of native species nationwide.
http://www.minerapanama.com/es/noticias/item/85-desarrollo-sostenible
[Xv] Patricia Toquica,
Panama, is the Dubai of Latin America? In:
http://www.revistadiners.com.co/articulo/45_237_panama-la-dubai-de-latinoamerica
[Xvi] The artificial islands of Dubai, the
environmental failure. In: http://blogs.eluniversal.com.mx/weblogs_detalle16116.html
